Elizabeth A. Bates - US grants

In studying the relationship between brain and language aphasiologists hope that the patterns of dissociation observed in different aphasic syndromes represent some decomposition of a universal language processing system. However, because most research is based on English, there is a confound between universal processes and language-specific content. In our first funding project, we have given existing theories of grammatical breakdown in aphasia a rigorous cross-linguistic test. Our results suggest that agrammatism, paragrammatism and anomia all take very different forms across typologically-distinct languages. However, we also find evidence that grammatical morphology is selectively vulnerable to brain damage across languages--not only in Broca's aphasia, but in every class of patients studied to date. We now propose a comprehensive cross-linguistic study of grammatical processing in three forms of aphasia (Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, and anomia), across languages that vary widely in the nature and richness of their morphological systems (i.e. English, Italian, Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian, German, Hindi, Turkish and Chinese). To unconfound effects of language task and syndrome, we will study lexical/morphological processing across a broad array of tasks: receptive vs. expressive language, focusing either on form (e.g. grammaticality judgments) or meaning (e.g. comprehension), in contexts of varying size (e.g. word-suffix, phrases, sentences), in either the visual or the auditory modality, "on-line" and "off-line". The research is based on 12 years of cross-linguistic research with normals, and on a lexicalist theory of grammatical processing designed to account for variations in language and in processing capacity. Within this framework, we want to know why morphology is selectively vulnerable in aphasia, and whether there are qualitative differences in the causes of lexical/morphological breakdown across syndromes. Results will contribute not only to our understanding about the plasticity of brain-language relations, but also to international communications about aphasia, and to the establishment of language batteries tailored to the particular structures of different native languages. We will also establish the first computerized archive of speech production data from aphasic patients in different language groups.

In studying the relationship between brain and language aphasiologists hope that the patterns of dissociation observed in different aphasic syndromes represent some decomposition of a universal language processing system. However, because most research is based on English, there is a confound between universal processes and language-specific content. In our first funding project, we have given existing theories of grammatical breakdown in aphasia a rigorous cross-linguistic test. Our results suggest that agrammatism, paragrammatism and anomia all take very different forms across typologically-distinct languages. However, we also find evidence that grammatical morphology is selectively vulnerable to brain damage across languages--not only in Broca's aphasia, but in every class of patients studied to date. We now propose a comprehensive cross-linguistic study of grammatical processing in three forms of aphasia (Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, and anomia), across languages that vary widely in the nature and richness of their morphological systems (i.e. English, Italian, Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian, German, Hindi, Turkish and Chinese). To unconfound effects of language task and syndrome, we will study lexical/morphological processing across a broad array of tasks: receptive vs. expressive language, focusing either on form (e.g. grammaticality judgments) or meaning (e.g. comprehension), in contexts of varying size (e.g. word-suffix, phrases, sentences), in either the visual or the auditory modality, "on-line" and "off-line". The research is based on 12 years of cross-linguistic research with normals, and on a lexicalist theory of grammatical processing designed to account for variations in language and in processing capacity. Within this framework, we want to know why morphology is selectively vulnerable in aphasia, and whether there are qualitative differences in the causes of lexical/morphological breakdown across syndromes. Results will contribute not only to our understanding about the plasticity of brain-language relations, but also to international communications about aphasia, and to the establishment of language batteries tailored to the particular structures of different native languages. We will also establish the first computerized archive of speech production data from aphasic patients in different language groups.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive disorder marked by widespread cortical degeneration, accompanied by a corresponding degeneration of cognitive abilities. It is therefore quite interesting, on both neurological and psycholinguistic grounds, that the dissolution of language is neither global nor diffuse (e.g. semantic processing appears to erode before grammar). We propose an investigation of grammatical abilities in AD, focussed on the difference between those aspects of grammar that do show signs of softening early in the disease (i.e. comprehension, metalinguistic judgments, use of he grammar in large discourse frames) compared with aspects that are relatively resistant to cortical degeneration (i.e. production across short discourse units, receptive tasks that reflect the automatic and unconscious effects of grammatical and semantic structure). This distinction between "automatic" and "controlled" processing has implications for theories of neurological organization, in both aphasia and dementia. We will also focus on the bilateral nature of AD, using language tasks that discriminate between patients with left- and right-hemisphere lesions (including measures of discourse and formulaic speech that are characteristic indicators of RH damage). AD patients should show the predicted progression from controlled to automatic processing within both hemispheres, displaying features of both left and right focal syndromes. Results for AD patients will be compared with a large existing base of data with other populations, using the same measures: fluent and non-fluent aphasics, RH patients, age-matched controls, as well as developmental data from normal and brain-damaged children.

Cross-linguistic comparisons permit us to disentangle the confound between universal mechanisms and language-specific content in current research on aphasia, while we address one of the most important issues in cognitive neurobiology, the issue of behavioral and neural plasticity. We propose new cross-linguistic studies of Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia and several control populations, using a set of languages and experimental procedures that are directly motivated by six basic findings from our research to date. Crosslinguistic variation: We have demonstrated that the "same" aphasic syndromes look very different from one language to another. In Years 8 - 12 we will concentrate on four languages (English, Italian, Hungarian and Chinese) that maximize the linguistic contrasts that have proven most important in this research. Performance deficits: These cross-linguistic differences suggest that language-specific knowledge (i.e. competence) is largely preserved in Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, requiring an account of language breakdown based on deficits in the processes by which this preserved knowledge base is accessed and deployed (i.e. performance). This leads us to an expanded use of "on-line" or "real time" experimental procedures that yield information about how patients arrive at a correct or incorrect response in receptive and expressive language use. Selective vulnerability of morphology: Interacting with language differences, we find evidence for a selective impairment of grammatical inflections and function words. The proposed experiments are designed to distinguish between those aspects of morphology that are "at risk" and those that are "protected", within and across language types. Patient group similarities: Because we have found evidence for expressive and/or receptive impairments of grammatical morphology in several populations (including some non-neurological patient controls), we will conduct experiments that control for the contribution of a global reduction in perceptual and/or cognitive resources, in order to isolate those forms of grammatical impairment that are specific to particular types of aphasia from those that can be induced in normals under stressed conditions. Similarity of lexical & grammatical symptoms: Although morphology appears to be a quantitatively vulnerable domain, the grammatical symptoms displayed by these patients are qualitatively similar to their lexical symptoms. This leads to a detailed comparison of lexical and grammatical processing, in languages that rely to different degrees on word order, inflections and/or lexical contrasts to accomplish the same communicative goals. Patient group differences: We will investigate a set of proposed "neurolinguistic universals", contrasts between patient groups that hold up across very different language types. These studies will help to move the field of aphasiology toward a new model of intra-hemispheric organization, a model that can handle universal and language-specific differences between syndromes. In addition, these studies have practical implications for international communication about aphasia, for the development of aphasia batteries tailored to the specific characteristics of different languages, and for clinical services to the growing bilingual communities in our nation.

Since its founding in 1985, in response to RFA84-NS-01, the UCSD Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of the Neural Bases of Language, Learning and Behavior has become a major national and international resource in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. In the first five years, we have broken new ground by establishing contrasting neurological and behavioral profiles for children suffering from specific language impairment (LI), focal brain lesions (FL), Williams Syndrome (WS), Down Syndrome (DS), as well as an array of rare inborn errors of metabolism (MET). We have demonstrated that these populations display robust patterns of association and dissociation among component processes in language and cognitive development. We have also uncovered some important developmental changes in those patterns, increasing our understanding of developmental changes in the structural and functional organization of the brain. In Years 6-10, we will continue to work with the same populations. Building on results from Years 1 - 5, we have formulated an array of new questions about brain and behavioral development, revolving around (1) patterns of association and dissociation between and within language and other cognitive and communicative domains, (2) the neural correlates of these contrasting profiles, (3) developmental changes in the behavioral and neural profiles that characterize each population, (4) the nature and limits of neural specialization for language and other aspects of cognition, and finally, (5) the complementary issue of plasticity, i.e. alternative forms of organization in the mental and neural processes responsible for language and other cognitive processes in our species. In order to maximize our ability to draw comparisons across populations, we will draw from a common pool of experimental methods that represent the state of the art in cognitive science and neuroscience. In the four neurobehavioral projects, we will continue our focus on language and spatial cognition (the areas emphasized in Years 1 - 5), together with some new initiatives in the areas of attention, memory, and affect. These will be complemented by projects focussed directly on brain structure (using magnetic resonance imaging) and brain function (using event-related brain potentials). Given our interest in developmental trajectories, we will emphasize longitudinal methods in all six projects, across the age range from 4 - 12 years of age. Collaborating institutions include the UCSD Departments of Pediatrics, Neuroscience, Radiology, Psychiatry, Psychology and Cognitive Science, the Center for Research on Language and the Project in Cognitive and Neural Development at UCSD, the Departments of Psychology and Communicative Disorders at SDSU, Children's Hospital (CHHC) and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

behavioral /social science research tag; clinical research; language disorders; language development; human subject; child (0-11); child psychology;

DESCRIPTION (Adapted from the Investigator's Abstract): In the proposed research on aphasia, crosslinguistic comparisons allow disentanglement of a confounding between universal mechanisms and language-specific content. New studies are proposed of aphasic patients with lexical and/or grammatical symptoms across languages that differ in lexical and grammatical structure. Experiments are motivated by six findings of the research program over the last 12 years. 1) The same aphasic syndromes look very different from one language to another. This leads the principal investigator and colleagues to propose to compare languages that maximize linguistic contrasts of interest. The languages under study will be Chinese, English, Italian, Spanish and Russian. 2) Language-specific knowledge is largely intact in aphasic patients suggesting that the deficits are in the processes by which knowledge is accessed in real time. That is, deficits are in performance rather than in competence. This account is tested by expanded use of real-time experimental procedures that yield information about how patients arrive at a correct or incorrect response in comprehension and production. 3) Despite these cross-language differences, grammatical inflections and function words are especially vulnerable in every language. This leads to experiments that compare aspects of language that are either at risk or protected within and across language types. 4) Some aspects of grammatical vulnerability show up in every patient group. This finding leads to experiments that assess the contribution of global forms of stress (e.g., perceptual degradation and/or cognitive loads) to isolate those impairments that are specific to particular types of aphasia from those that can be induced in normals under stressed conditions. 5) Despite quantitative differences in vulnerability, the grammatical symptoms displayed by fluent and nonfluent patients are qualitatively similar to their lexical symptoms. This leads to experiments comparing the effects of lexical and grammatical context in languages that rely to different degrees on word order, inflections and/or lexical contrasts to accomplish the same communicative goals. 6) There may be 'neurolinguistic universals'--that is, contrasts among patient groups that are invariant across different language types--that will be investigated. This includes dissociations between nouns and verbs and between closed-class and content words. The proposed studies will help to move the field of aphasiology toward a new model of brain organization for language, integrating universal and language-specific symptoms. The studies also have practical significance for international communication about aphasia, for the development of test batteries for aphasics that are tailored to the specific characteristics of individual languages and for clinical services to the bilingual communities of the nation.

Since its founding in 1985, in response to RFA84-NS-01, the UCSD Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of the Neural Bases of Language, Learning and Behavior has become a major national and international resource in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. In the first five years, we have broken new ground by establishing contrasting neurological and behavioral profiles for children suffering from specific language impairment (LI), focal brain lesions (FL), Williams Syndrome (WS), Down Syndrome (DS), as well as an array of rare inborn errors of metabolism (MET). We have demonstrated that these populations display robust patterns of association and dissociation among component processes in language and cognitive development. We have also uncovered some important developmental changes in those patterns, increasing our understanding of developmental changes in the structural and functional organization of the brain. In Years 6-10, we will continue to work with the same populations. Building on results from Years 1 - 5, we have formulated an array of new questions about brain and behavioral development, revolving around (1) patterns of association and dissociation between and within language and other cognitive and communicative domains, (2) the neural correlates of these contrasting profiles, (3) developmental changes in the behavioral and neural profiles that characterize each population, (4) the nature and limits of neural specialization for language and other aspects of cognition, and finally, (5) the complementary issue of plasticity, i.e. alternative forms of organization in the mental and neural processes responsible for language and other cognitive processes in our species. In order to maximize our ability to draw comparisons across populations, we will draw from a common pool of experimental methods that represent the state of the art in cognitive science and neuroscience. In the four neurobehavioral projects, we will continue our focus on language and spatial cognition (the areas emphasized in Years 1 - 5), together with some new initiatives in the areas of attention, memory, and affect. These will be complemented by projects focussed directly on brain structure (using magnetic resonance imaging) and brain function (using event-related brain potentials). Given our interest in developmental trajectories, we will emphasize longitudinal methods in all six projects, across the age range from 4 - 12 years of age. Collaborating institutions include the UCSD Departments of Pediatrics, Neuroscience, Radiology, Psychiatry, Psychology and Cognitive Science, the Center for Research on Language and the Project in Cognitive and Neural Development at UCSD, the Departments of Psychology and Communicative Disorders at SDSU, Children's Hospital (CHHC) and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

Since its founding in 1985, in response to RFA84-NS-01, the UCSD Multidisciplinary Center for the Study of the Neural Bases of Language, Learning and Behavior has become a major national and international resource in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. In the first five years, we have broken new ground by establishing contrasting neurological and behavioral profiles for children suffering from specific language impairment (LI), focal brain lesions (FL), Williams Syndrome (WS), Down Syndrome (DS), as well as an array of rare inborn errors of metabolism (MET). We have demonstrated that these populations display robust patterns of association and dissociation among component processes in language and cognitive development. We have also uncovered some important developmental changes in those patterns, increasing our understanding of developmental changes in the structural and functional organization of the brain. In Years 6-10, we will continue to work with the same populations. Building on results from Years 1 - 5, we have formulated an array of new questions about brain and behavioral development, revolving around (1) patterns of association and dissociation between and within language and other cognitive and communicative domains, (2) the neural correlates of these contrasting profiles, (3) developmental changes in the behavioral and neural profiles that characterize each population, (4) the nature and limits of neural specialization for language and other aspects of cognition, and finally, (5) the complementary issue of plasticity, i.e. alternative forms of organization in the mental and neural processes responsible for language and other cognitive processes in our species. In order to maximize our ability to draw comparisons across populations, we will draw from a common pool of experimental methods that represent the state of the art in cognitive science and neuroscience. In the four neurobehavioral projects, we will continue our focus on language and spatial cognition (the areas emphasized in Years 1 - 5), together with some new initiatives in the areas of attention, memory, and affect. These will be complemented by projects focussed directly on brain structure (using magnetic resonance imaging) and brain function (using event-related brain potentials). Given our interest in developmental trajectories, we will emphasize longitudinal methods in all six projects, across the age range from 4 - 12 years of age. Collaborating institutions include the UCSD Departments of Pediatrics, Neuroscience, Radiology, Psychiatry, Psychology and Cognitive Science, the Center for Research on Language and the Project in Cognitive and Neural Development at UCSD, the Departments of Psychology and Communicative Disorders at SDSU, Children's Hospital (CHHC) and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

The study of bilingualism in individuals with neurological dysfunction (primarily unilateral focal lesions) has yielded a number of mixed findings. These include cases of parallel breakdown in both languages, breakdown of only one of a patient's languages (either first or second) with a relative sparing of the other language, and initial loss of both languages with differential recovery (i.e. one language improves more than the other). The use of bilingual AD offers an opportunity to better identify the nature of language breakdown under neurological insult for the following three reasons. First of all, patients with AD suffer from progressive bilateral patterns of cortical degeneration. This provides a larger homogeneity than studies with patients suffering form unilateral focal lesions. Second, the identification of patients in the early stages of AD will permit us to identify patterns of language dominance before the disease has run its course. Finally, the progressive nature of AD should help to elucidate the differential patterns of maintenance and loss that are observed in both of a patient's languages at various points in time. Two on-line tasks will be used to test bilingual language processing. In the cross-modal word pronunciation paradigm, subjects will presented with auditory texts and probed during the text with semantically or linguistically congruent and incongruent words. The second on-line task, the sentence interpretation task, is a forced choice task in which subjects will be asked to pick the subject of sentences with two nouns and a verb. These two paradigms will be employed with AD patients and elderly controls. AD patients will be tested only once. This longitudinal design should provide us the essential information about the effect of diffuse neurological insult on the pattern of syntactic and semantic sparing or breakdown in bilingual AD patients. These results, when compared to those of normal elderly controls and college aged controls, should help to reveal the impact of aging and dementia on bilingual language processing.

The Administrative/Statistical Core is responsible for the coordination of scientific activity among the various projects and cores, and for budgetary planning, data base management, and statistical services. In addition, during the new funding period Core A will promote the development of new analytic procedures tailored to the special problems that are encountered in the study of rare populations. After outlining our strategies for Years 6 - 10 in these substantive areas, we will provide a brief progress report focussed primarily on the changes that have taken place in Core A since 1985.

statistical service /center; statistics /biometry; biomedical facility; method development; human population study; language development; language disorders; mathematical model; model design /development;

neural information processing; language disorders; psycholinguistics; language development; language; preschool child (1-5); auditory stimulus; functional ability; performance; vocabulary; nonEnglish language; computer assisted diagnosis; child psychology; computer program /software; hearing; semantics; cognition; data collection methodology /evaluation; behavioral /social science research tag; clinical research; human subject; infant human (0-1 year); computer graphics /printing; psychological tests;

"On-line" methods provide insights into the time course of language processing. Project 4 proposes a series of on-line experiments to investigate the temporal microstructure of auditory language processing in normally developing children, under normal processing conditions and under abnormal conditions designed to stimulate the processing deficits hypothesized to underlie some forms of developmental language impairment (i.e., perceptual degradation, to stimulate processing with a deficient perceptual mechanism; compressed speech, to simulate deficits in temporal integration). We will document developmental changes in real-time word and sentence processing across the period from 5 years to adolescence, and compare those results with the processing profiles observed in our clinical populations. Experiments will focus on different tasks and sentence processing across the period from 5 years to adolescence, and compare those results with the processing profiles observed in our clinical populations. Experiments will focus on different tasks and modalities, including (1) sentence interpretation, using stimuli that vary in syntactic complexity and in the point in time at which the listener can make an unambiguous interpretation; (2) grammaticality judgment, focusing on developmental changes in accuracy and reaction time to violations of grammatical morphology, an area that is known to be particularly vulnerable in children with developmental language disorders; (3) word comprehension, in and out of a sentence context, looking at the amount of phonetic information that children of different ages need in order to recognize and repeat a target word, and at developmental changes in the facilitative and/or inhibitory contributions of sentential context on accuracy and reaction time; (4) word production, in and out of a sentence context, looking at developmental changes in the relative contribution of semantic and phonetic cues to accuracy, word onset latency and word duration in a picture-naming task. In collaboration with the other projects in the Center, we will compare the temporal processing profiles that emerge in our "on-line" tasks with performance by children in "off-line" measures of language ability (with Dr. Reilly, 'on-line' processing of nonlinguistic stimuli (with Dr. Stiles), and electrophysiological studies of real-time language processing (with Miles). Finally, we will conduct pilot studies of lexical and grammatical processing in children who are acquiring Italian, a richly inflected language that permits a more detailed examination of developmental changes in real-time processing of grammatical morphology, an area of language that is known to be particularly vulnerable in populations of children and adults with language disorders.

The purpose of this multi-disciplinary Center is to explore the neural bases of language and cognitive development from 7-18 years of age, combining cross-sectional and longitudinal behavioral methods with neural imaging (event-related brain potentials (ERP); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study normal and abnormal brain development, and the alternative forms of brain organization that can emerge under pathological conditions, and the alternative forms of brain organization that can emerge under pathological conditions. Project A focuses on children with Language Impairment (LI); it examines the cognitive and neural correlates of LI, and test competing hypotheses about the processing deficits that underlie this disorder. Project B follows children with focal lesions (FL) to one side of the brain, acquired pre- or perinatally (before 6 months of ages); it will provide behavioral, fMRI and ERP evidence regarding the alternative forms of organization the underlie plastic reorganization in the plastic reorganization in this population. Project C compares Williams Syndrome (WMS), a rare form of mental retardation in which language is especially vulnerable. Project D is new, and constitutes an extension of Project 2 to study children with lesions of later onset in childhood, children with bilateral pathology, and children with slowly evolving lesions due to tumor; the purpose of this project is to increase our understanding of developmental and neurological limits on plasticity. Project E is new, a groundbreaking series of studies using fMRI, including BOLD activation studies of language, spatial processing and spatial attention, as well as perfusion studies of vascular organization. Project F continues our ERP studies of language, spatial cognition and basic auditory-visual processing in all populations. Core A handles administration, data base management, tracking and statistical consultation.. Core B is responsible for recruitment of controls, and handles screening, diagnosis and induction of all populations. Core C is a new joint behavioral testing facility that handles language and behavioral testing (excluding ERP and fMRI) for all populations, including language transcription.

Over the past 15 years, we have made significant progress in the study lf language and affective development in children with congenital injuries to one side of the brain (FL). In each behavioral , we have covered evidence of initial deficits, and specific effects of lesion side and site, but these initial deficits are followed by substantial recovery and development, providing strong evidence for behavioral and neural plasticity in this population. Furthermore, we have shown that trajectories of deficit and recovery differ across domains. In language, lesion- symptom correlations exist in the first years of life, but they do not resemble the patterns observed in adults; by 5-7 years of age, specific effects of lesion side and site seem to have disappeared altogether. In spatial cognition, lesion-symptom correlations persist across childhood and adolescence, albeit in a mild form, and continue to resemble the correlations observed in adults. These results are compatible with a large literature on plasticity and reorganization in animals, supporting the view that brain development is a dynamic, responsive and self-organizing system. But they also offer a unique perspective on plasticity and brain organization in humans. We are now well-positioned to take a historic new steps, with convergent use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), event-related brain potentials(ERP), combined with analogous "on-line" (timed" behavioral studies of language, spatial cognition and spatial attention. These convergent methods will yield unprecedented information about the "alternative brain plans" that have emerged across the course of development in children with FL. E will also continue to chart language and cognitive development into adolescence, using benchmark "off-line" (untimed" measures of language (including aspects of discourse that re critical to success in school and work), visual-spatial cognition, memory and executive function. On all measures, results for children with FL will be compared systematically to findings for children in other populations, including Specific Language Impairment, Williams Syndrome, Down Syndrome, and new project studying other forms of FL.

[unreadable] DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): We propose renewal of our interdisciplinary training program in Language, Communication, and the Brain. The program emphasizes new technologies and new theoretical frameworks in cognitive science and neuroscience (e.g. advances in neural imaging, electrophysiological and behavioral studies of real-time language processing, computer simulations of language learning and breakdown). The proposed program pulls together the expertise, ideas, populations, and technologies that are available in abundance across this community, and places them at the disposal of young scientists interested in the mental and neural mechanisms that underlie language learning, language use, and language disorders. The program for the next five years will be headed by an Executive Committee of seven senior scientists, including the program director (E. Bates), and directors of six research and training components; (1) Communication Disorders (B. Wulfeck), including studies of adult aphasia and childhood language disorders; (2) Psycholinguistics (D. Swinney), including studies of real-time language and processing in adults, and studies of language learning in children; (3) Multilingual and Comparative Language Studies (M. Polinsky), a new component emphasizing studies of multilingualism (processing, learning, disorders), loss and relearning of "heritage" languages in immigrant populations, and comparative studies across typologically distinct language groups; (4) Neural Network Studies of language (J. Elman), with an emphasis on simulations of language learning and language breakdown under a range of different assumptions about the structure of the system and the context of learning and loss; (5) Event-Related Brain Potential (ERP) (M. Kutas); and (6) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imagining (M. Sereno), two components to capture two complementary neural imaging techniques, applied to normal children and adults, and to children and adults with neurological impairments and/or behaviorally defined communication disorders. All trainees specialize in (at least) two of the six areas (a major and a minor), and receive some exposure to all six areas through laboratory rotations, coursework, and activities within the UCSD Center for Research in Language. Courses and laboratory rotations are offered by a larger faculty of scientists at UCSD, San Diego State University and the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. We request eight predoctoral and three postdoctoral trainees per year. Predoctoral students apply through Cognitive Science, Linguistics, Psychology, or the SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Communication Disorders, and meet all requirements for those departments. Postdoctoral trainees apply directly to the Center for Research in Language. The proposed increase of three trainees (two predoctoral, one postdoctoral) is justified by growth in the last five years in three areas: the new UCSD Neural Imaging Center, the Center for Human Development (a new research unit to study neural to cultural aspects of human development), and new opportunities in multilingual/cross-language research. [unreadable] [unreadable]