Arthur F. Kramer - US grants

developmental psychology; learning; cognition; aging; neural information processing; psychomotor reaction time; performance; evoked potentials; brain electrical activity; young adult human (21-34); human old age (65+);

The focus of this proposal is the investigation of age-related differences in human information processing. More specifically, we are interested in how these age related differences impact the acquisition of new skills. We are also concerned with how information processing strategies might be used to reduce decrements in the rate of learning and asymptotic level of performance that are observed with older individuals. In our investigation of these issues we will employ a number of methodologies including: speed-accuracy manipulations, speed-accuracy decomposition techniques (Meyer et al., 1988), random walk modelling procedures (Ratcliff, 1978, 1985), and event related brain potentials, in an effort to provide a fine-grained assessment of performance changes during training. Our goal is to localize the bottlenecks in the acquisition of cognitive skills and identify compensatory strategies which may circumvent these information processing impediments. We plan to investigate the hypothesis that conservative response strategies observed in the elderly inhibit the acquisition of new cognitive skills and that this deficit may be reduced or eliminated through manipulations which affect their response criterion (defined as the amount of evidence required before a response is emitted; emphasis on speed or accuracy in responding). Furthermore, the role of response strategies in the acquisition of cognitive skills will be evaluated in detail for both young and elderly adults. If response strategy is a critical factor in the development of automaticity, as has been suggested by Shiffrin, Dumais and Schneider (1984), then acquisition rates may be varied independently of age. This program of research is intended to provide refinements to theories of aging by explicating the effects of strategic/cognitive differences in information processing on overall response speed and skill acquisition. Furthermore, refinements to theories of skill acquisition will be sought by exploring in detail the role of cognitive strategies on skill acquisition rates. In addition to contributions to theories of skill acquisition and aging we believe that our research has important practical implications for the development of training strategies that are well suited to older individuals.

A human-computer interaction laboratory at the Psychology Department of the University of Illinois at Urbana is being enhanced for students from the fields of Industrial Engineering, Human Factors, and Cognitive Science. The new laboratory experiments provide a detailed account of human capabilities and limitations affecting interface design in general, but giving particular emphasis as it relates to computer products. The state-of-the-art interdisciplinary laboratory is oriented to the design and evaluation of human- computer interfaces. Students from Computer Science, Psychology, and Industrial Engineering are learning the basic concepts, methodology, and skills necessary to evaluate and design human-computer interfaces. The multi-disciplinary perspectives that are necessary for the successful design of computer products are fostered as part of the educational process when students from these different disciplines are brought together.

There has been a conspicuous absence of research directed to the question of whether older adults have the capability to improve their dual-task performance through practice and training, and whether such improvements might parallel those exhibited for younger adults or instead narrow or eliminate the age-related gap in dual-task performance. It is this question which forms the basis of our research program on the influence of training strategies on the learning, transfer and retention of dual-task processing skills for young and elderly adults. The major aims of our research program include the following; (1) To examine the hypothesis that training strategies, such as variable priority training (Gopher, in press), which emphasize the flexible coordination among two or more tasks in multi-task settings, will enhance the rate of learning and level of mastery exhibited on trained tasks as well as the retention of performance over extended periods of time. Furthermore, we predict that such training strategies are uniquely suited for older adults given their demonstrated difficulties in metacognitive skills such as self-monitoring and information. Thus, we predict a reduction in age-related dual-task performance differences with the use of variable priority training strategies. (2) To examine the hypothesis that dual-task training, particularly with variable priority training strategies, will lead to the improvement in a number of aspects of processing including the automatization of the trained tasks, the improvement in the efficiency of dual-task processing strategies such as time-sharing and time-switching, and improvements in the efficiency of elementary processes relevant to dual-task performance such as perceptual speed, working memory, and various attentional processes. (3) To examine the hypothesis that the scheduling of performance feedback, in the form of adaptively fading feedback with practice, will enhance the transfer and retention of dual-task processing skills and reduce the age- related decrement in dual-task performance. To test this hypothesis we will adapt some of the feedback scheduling techniques that have been successfully used in the motor and verbal learning literatures to the arena of dual-task processing.

DESCRIPTION (adapted from investigator's abstract): Although large and robust age-related deficits have been observed in dual-task performance for over two decades there have been few studies which have examined the question of whether older adults can improve their dual-task performance through training, and whether such improvements might parallel those exhibited by younger adults or instead narrow the age-related gap in dual-task performance. In the proposed research program, which represents a logical extension of laboratory research carried out over the past several years (Kramer et al., 1995, in press), the investigators will examine the influence of specific training strategies on the learning transfer and retention of dual-task processing skills for young and elderly adults. The major aims of the research program include: (1) To examine the hypothesis that training strategies which emphasize the flexible coordination among multiple concurrently performed tasks will enhance the rate of learning and level of mastery exhibited on trained tasks as well as the retention of task coordination skills over time. (2) To examine the hypothesis that dual-task training, particularly with variable priority training strategies (Gopher, 1995), will lead to the improvement in a number of aspects of processing including; the automatization of the trained tasks, the efficiency of dual-task processing strategies such as time-sharing and time-switching, and the efficiency of elementary processes relevant to dual-task performance such as perceptual speed, working memory, and various attentional processes. (3) To examine the hypothesis that training strategies which emphasize flexible coordination of multiple tasks and the monitoring of performance will lead to the development of dual-task processing skills which can be transferred from the trained tasks to more complex tasks which represent real-world information processing.

EIA-0079800
Huang, Thomas S.
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

MRI: LIVE: Laboratory for Immersive Virtual Experiments

This proposal establishes the Laboratory for Immersive Virtual Environments (LIVE) which will provide a testbed for engineering and computer science research on distributed graphics, sensor integration, audio display, and human face, speech, and gesture recognition. Psychologists will use LIVE to determine how visual perception drives information extraction, navigation, and human movement. Scientists will use LIVE to explore and analyze their three dimensional datasets. Twenty-five faculty members from nine departments will use LIVE to build and understand virtual worlds and human interfaces. The heart of LIVE will be a fully enclosed, 6-sided, 10'x10'x10', backprojected virtual reality environment to be housed at the Beckman Institute and the University of Illinois.

DESCRIPTION:(provided by applicant): A multidisciplinary investigation is proposed to examine the influence of aerobic fitness on the neurocognitive function in older adults. More specifically, we plan to investigate the relationship between aerobic fitness, cognitive function and brain function and structure. Our preliminary data as well as that of others suggests that improvements in aerobic fitness have selective rather than general effects on cognitive function. That is, improvements in aerobic fitness appear to result in improvements in executive control process such as scheduling, planning, coordination, inhibition, and working memory. Neuroimaging and human lesion data further suggest that such processes are supported, to a large extent, by frontal and prefrontal regions of cortex. Indeed, executive control processes and the prefrontal and frontal regions that support them have shown substantial and disproportionate age-related declines. The main hypothesis that we test in the present project is that such deficits may be moderated by improvements in aerobic fitness. We will investigate the relationship between aerobic fitness, cognitive function, and brain function and structure with cross-sectional studies. In these studies 40 high fit old adults, 40 low fit old adults (60 to 75 years) and 40 young adult controls will be assessed in terms of (a) fitness level, (b) performance on a battery of neurocognitive tasks and (c) functional and structural measures of brain integrity and activation using MRI and event-related fMRI. Measures of brain activation will be collected as subjects perform a number of neurocognitive tasks. Our hypotheses are as follows. First, we predict differences in performance and fMRI activation between high and low fit adults on executive control processes and the brain regions that support them. We do not expect to observe substantial fitness differences on non-executive processes or non-frontal activation patterns. Second, we predict structural differences in prefrontal and frontal regions of cortex between the low and high fit old adults. Third, we predict that performance and brain structure and function, particularly on the executive control processes and the cortical regions which support them, of the high fit older adults will approach that of the young adult control subjects.

[unreadable] DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): The major aims of our research program on aging and multi-task training include the following: (1) To examine the hypothesis that training strategies, such as variable priority training (Gopher, 1993; 2000; Kramer et al, 1999c), which emphasize the flexible coordination among two or more tasks, will enhance the rate of learning and level of mastery exhibited on trained tasks as well as the retention of performance. Furthermore, we predict that such training strategies are well suited for older adults given their demonstrated difficulties in meta-cognitive skills such as self-monitoring. Thus, we predict a reduction in age-related dual-task performance differences with the use of variable priority training strategies. (2) To examine the hypothesis that dual-task training, particularly with variable priority training strategies, will lead to the improvement in a number of aspects of processing including the automatization of the trained tasks, improvement in the efficiency of dual-task processing strategies such as time-sharing and timeswitching, and improvements in the efficiency of elementary processes relevant to dual-task performance such as perceptual speed, working memory, and various attentional processes. Furthermore, we predict that enhanced dual-task processing engendered by training will transfer to an inherently multi-task situation - automobile driving in a high fidelity simulator. (3) To examine the hypothesis that the scheduling of performance feedback, in the form of adaptively fading feedback with practice, will enhance the transfer and retention of dual-task processing skills and reduce the age-related decrement in dual-task performance. To test this hypothesis we will adapt some of the feedback scheduling techniques that have been successfully used in the motor and verbal learning literatures to the arena of dual-task processing (a la Schmidt & Bork, 1992; Sweeney & Dee, 2001). (4) To examine the hypothesis that visual-spatial attentional skills (e.g. the Useful Field of View task, Ball & Owsley, 2000, 2002), will also benefit from training within the context of variable priority training methodology. Furthermore, we predict that training visual-spatial skills will transfer to elementary perceptual and cognitive processes (see Green & Baveiler, 2003) as well as simulated automobile driving. [unreadable] [unreadable]

DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): This proposal examines the effect of aerobic fitness training on human cognition, brain structure, and brain function of older adults. Our study is prompted by the encouraging effects of fitness training on human cognition, (Coxcomb &Kramer, 2003) and more recently human brain structure and function (Colcombe et al., 2003, in press). Such effects are of great interest both for what they tell us about the nature of cognitive and brain aging and also for their public health implications. The main specific aims of our studies include: 1) To test the hypothesis that improvements in aerobic fitness of older adults will lead to improved performance on a variety of cognitive processes, and more specifically those processes that are supported, in large part, by frontal regions of the brain. 2) To test the hypothesis that the improvements in cognitive processes engendered by enhanced aerobic fitness will be supported by changes in underlying neural circuits, as inferred from patterns of fMRI activation obtained in a 3 tesla scanner. We hypothesize that the changes in the patterns of fMRI activation that result from improvements in aerobic fitness will approach those activation patterns exhibited by young adults. 3) To test the hypothesis that improvements in aerobic fitness, over the course of a 1 year intervention, will result in increases in gray and white matter volume in regions of the human brain (i.e. primarily frontal, medial temporal and parietal) that have previously been demonstrated to show sparing in cross-sectional studies. 4) To test the hypothesis that increased levels of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF1) and decreases in markers of inflammation (i.e. C-reactive protein &interleukin-6) engendered by improvements in aerobic fitness will moderate the fitness benefits observed on measures of cognition, brain function and structure.

In the very limited space available (8 pages) for the continuation of our R37 grant we will (a) briefly describe our plans for a 3 year retention assessment ofthe older advlt subjects who participated in our previous 1 year (3 one hour training sessions per week for a year) randomized fitness training intervention trial and (b) provide a more deteuled description of our plans for a novel randomized traiiung intervention that we believe capitalizes on what we have learned from our previous intervention as well as other training interventions, with older adults, that have taken place over the past several years (e.g. ACTIVE, Willis et al, 2006; Experience Corps, Carlson et al, in press, video game training, Basak et al., 2008). Given the page limitations, we do not provide extensive methodological details in this abbreviated proposal and hope that our previous experience -with the methods and kinds of training protocols we have proposed will satisfy any concerns.

DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): The long term objective of this project is to develop easily implemented multimodal interventions that can positively influence cognition, brain function, and well being of older adults. Two previously funded NIA studies conducted by our research team demonstrated the cognitive benefits of a novel, short-term intervention for older adults. Those studies consisted of four-week courses in the techniques used by professional actors to create lifelike characters, and resulted in gains on measures of recall, prose comprehension/memory, word generation, and problem-solving ability. In the first study, the participants were community-dwelling seniors. Improvements were measured against both no-treatment controls and alternative-treatment controls (art appreciation). The second study extended the findings to a far more at-risk population: adults who were almost a full decade older, less well educated, and who no longer lived in their own homes but in low income, continuing care facilities that were rarely able to offer specialized programs of mental stimulation. Once again, the benefits were demonstrated against no-treatment controls and an alternate intervention (musical performance). In the proposed present project we will substantially extend this research by investigating not just behavioral measures of improved cognition but also by examining changes in brain function and structure which result from acting instruction, as indexed by magnetic resonance imaging and functional magnetic resonance imaging. We will also extend our examination of the aspects of perception and cognition, with both laboratory tests and tests of everyday cognition, that are influenced by the acting intervention. We will also include control conditions that will enable us to discern the important mechanisms which underlie the benefits of our intervention on cognition and brain. Finally, we will examine whether changes in cognition and well- being attributed to the acting intervention persist over time.

DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): The long term objective of this project is to develop an understanding of lifestyle factors that influence the cognitive and brain health of children while also reducing the sedentary nature of today's youth. Previous research conducted by our research team and others has found that physical activity interventions can enhance both a variety of aspects of cognition and brain structure and function of children, older adults, and individuals with neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. More specifically, in our research with children we have found that higher fit children possess larger hippocampi which in turn are related to better relational memory than their lower fit counterparts. We have also observed that higher fit children exhibit more efficient executive control as indicated by performance measures and event-related brain potentials. While intriguing, these cross-sectional data do not enable us to establish causality between physical activity and cognition. In the current proposal we substantially extend this previous research by examining the influence of a 9 month randomized controlled afterschool physical activity program on cognition and brain health. Cognition will be assessed with a battery of tasks and standardized achievement tests both before and after the 9 month intervention in the activity group and a wait list control (who will receive the intervention the following year). Children will also participate in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sessions both before and after the intervention (and at comparable times for the wait list control). In these sessions we will measure both structural aspects of the brain including regional volumes of gray matter and the integrity of the white matter tracts (through diffusion tensor imaging) and functional aspects of brain function using fMRI activity recorded as the children perform a series of executive control and memory tasks. We anticipate, based on our cross-sectional studies with children and our previous longitudinal studies with older adults, that the children in the physical activity program will show both larger regional brain volumes, particularly in brain regions that subserve executive control and relational memory, and more efficient brain function, as indexed by task-related and resting state fMRI. Furthermore, we anticipate that these changes will be accompanied by improvements in memory and executive control processes. Given recent trends identifying decreased levels of physical activity and health status in preadolescents, the understanding of the potential benefits of physical activity on cognition is of great interest. It s imperative that factors positively influencing cognitive function of children be examined to maximize health and effective functioning of individuals as they progress through the lifespan.

Abstract Despite the ubiquity of normal age-related cognitive decline there is an absence of effective approaches for improving neurocognitive health. Fortunately, moderate intensity physical activity (PA) is a promising method for improving brain and cognitive health in late life, but its effectiveness remains a matter of continued skepticism and debate because of the absence of a Phase III clinical trial. Here we propose a Phase III multi- site randomized clinical trial called IGNITE (Investigating Gains in Neurocognition in an Intervention Trial of Exercise) to more definitively address whether exercise influences cognitive and brain health in cognitively normal older adults. We are proposing a 12-month, multi-site, randomized dose-response exercise trial (i.e., brisk walking) in 639 cognitively normal adults between 65-80 years of age. Participants will be randomized to a (a) moderate intensity aerobic exercise condition at the public health recommended dose of 150 minutes/week (N=213), (b) a moderate intensity exercise condition at 225 minutes/week (N=213), or (c) to a stretching-and-toning control condition for 150 minutes per week (N=213). Participants will meet 3 days/week for site-based exercise and do home-based activity on two more days of the week for 12 months. A comprehensive state-of-the-science battery of cognitive, MRI, amyloid imaging, physiological biomarkers, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical function, and quality of life measures will be assessed at baseline and after completion of the intervention. We have assembled a highly creative, productive, and interdisciplinary team with a long history of collaboration and experience conducting exercise interventions in older adults to test the following aims: Aim 1: Using a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and the NIH Toolbox, we will test whether a 12-month moderate intensity exercise intervention improves cognitive performance in older adults and (b) test whether the improvements occur in a dose-dependent manner. Aim 2: We will test whether a 12- month PA intervention augments MRI markers of brain health and whether these changes happen in a dose- dependent manner. Aim 3: We will test the hypothesis that cardiometabolic, inflammatory, and neurotrophic changes mediate improvements in brain and cognition. Aim 4: We will examine subgroups (i.e., individual differences) that attenuate or magnify the effect of the intervention on cognitive, brain, and physiological systems to better understand the factors that predict `responders' versus `non-responders' to the intervention. We will explore three categories of variables: (1) demographic (e.g., age) (2) genetic (e.g., APOE), and (3) baseline A? burden. Exploratory Aims: We will explore (a) whether baseline brain health metrics predict adherence and compliance to 12-months of PA, and (b) the utility of multi-modal brain imaging analytical approaches to more comprehensively understand the effects of PA on the aging brain. The results from this trial could transform scientific-based policy and health care recommendations for approaches to improve cognitive function in cognitively normal older adults.

Abstract Despite the ubiquity of normal age-related cognitive decline there is an absence of effective approaches for improving neurocognitive health. Fortunately, moderate intensity physical activity (PA) is a promising method for improving brain and cognitive health in late life, but its effectiveness remains a matter of continued skepticism and debate because of the absence of a Phase III clinical trial. Here we propose a Phase III multi- site randomized clinical trial called IGNITE (Investigating Gains in Neurocognition in an Intervention Trial of Exercise) to more definitively address whether exercise influences cognitive and brain health in cognitively normal older adults. We are proposing a 12-month, multi-site, randomized dose-response exercise trial (i.e., brisk walking) in 639 cognitively normal adults between 65-80 years of age. Participants will be randomized to a (a) moderate intensity aerobic exercise condition at the public health recommended dose of 150 minutes/week (N=213), (b) a moderate intensity exercise condition at 225 minutes/week (N=213), or (c) to a stretching-and-toning control condition for 150 minutes per week (N=213). Participants will meet 3 days/week for site-based exercise and do home-based activity on two more days of the week for 12 months. A comprehensive state-of-the-science battery of cognitive, MRI, amyloid imaging, physiological biomarkers, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical function, and quality of life measures will be assessed at baseline and after completion of the intervention. We have assembled a highly creative, productive, and interdisciplinary team with a long history of collaboration and experience conducting exercise interventions in older adults to test the following aims: Aim 1: Using a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and the NIH Toolbox, we will test whether a 12-month moderate intensity exercise intervention improves cognitive performance in older adults and (b) test whether the improvements occur in a dose-dependent manner. Aim 2: We will test whether a 12- month PA intervention augments MRI markers of brain health and whether these changes happen in a dose- dependent manner. Aim 3: We will test the hypothesis that cardiometabolic, inflammatory, and neurotrophic changes mediate improvements in brain and cognition. Aim 4: We will examine subgroups (i.e., individual differences) that attenuate or magnify the effect of the intervention on cognitive, brain, and physiological systems to better understand the factors that predict `responders' versus `non-responders' to the intervention. We will explore three categories of variables: (1) demographic (e.g., age) (2) genetic (e.g., APOE), and (3) baseline A? burden. Exploratory Aims: We will explore (a) whether baseline brain health metrics predict adherence and compliance to 12-months of PA, and (b) the utility of multi-modal brain imaging analytical approaches to more comprehensively understand the effects of PA on the aging brain. The results from this trial could transform scientific-based policy and health care recommendations for approaches to improve cognitive function in cognitively normal older adults.